The Entire History of Human Civilizations: Ancient to Modern

- [Narrator] The history of our story began long ago. (dramatic music) At one point in time, around 3 billion years ago, we were floating around as little tiny atoms in the little Petri dish of the world. Fast forward to around 6 million years ago, and we see the emergence of the first hominids, the family of primates that include humans. 1.9 million years ago, homoerectus was the first species to leave Africa and colonize other parts of the world. They had larger brains than their primate ancestors. Around 400,000 years ago, the first evidence of the Neanderthals, their bodies were adapted to the cold environments of Europe and Western Asia. Their distinctive facial features were some of the most human-like ever seen. Then came us, the only surviving species of the homo genus. But how did homo sapiens rise into a global dominance through the mechanism of civilization? (dramatic music) We begin our story in the fertile lands of Mesopotamia in 4,000 BCE, nestled between the great Tigris and Euphrates rivers and the Sumerian city of Uruk. Instead of relying on hunting and gathering like our ancestors of the past, the citizens of Uruk were able to develop a way to harvest cereal grains like wheat and barley. However, turning cereal grains into edible foods took a lot of work. In the beginning, they had to use an invention called a hand mill, which consisted of two stones. As the grains were crushed between the two stones, the flour was collected in a container and stored for future use. This was the start of something great. This complex strenuous process was our modern world's first example of agriculture. We no longer depended on hunting animals or picking berries for our food. Rather than using human ingenuity, we can create our own food source. This allowed Uruk to prosper into a place with over 50,000 residents. However, this change did have a change on the human body. The average height of men drastically shrunk from five foot nine to five foot three, and for women, they shrunk on average from five foot, three to five feet. Instead of being the super athletes we were of the past, we were smaller, less noticeable farmers. People also became landlocked, changing the very essence of what it means to be human. In the early 3000 BCE, according to legend, King Gilgamesh began his rule as a Sumerian king of his region. However, by the end of 3000, BCE, the Acadians ousted the Sumerians. Sargon the Great took power and conquered all of Sumeria. While in the Indus Valley in modern day Pakistan, a new civilization was growing. The Indus Valley civilization, 3300 to 1300 BCE was most notable for its highly advanced toilet system. The toilets were built with a seat and a chute that led to the underground drainage system. The sewage was then carried away from the homes through a network of covered drains, preventing disease spread. The waste was treated and disposed outside of city limits, helping to keep the cities clean and hygienic. While in Egypt, they were more consumed with building pyramids than basic human plumbing. This was because in ancient Egyptian religion, it was believed that when a Pharaoh was to die in the physical world, his spirit would continue to live on in the afterlife in which they would continue to rule in perpetuity and where they would be worshiped by the living. Inside these pyramids, the Pharaoh's body was carefully mummified. A process believed to preserve his physical form and help ensure his spirit's journey to the afterlife. The pyramid was also filled with offerings and treasures intended to provide the Pharaoh with the resources he would need in the afterlife. Every Pharaoh wanted to make sure they were immortal. They wanted to succeed in the afterlife. They wanted to be worshiped forever. That's why it was an utmost priority for Egyptian Pharaohs to build pyramids for themselves when laid to rest. It started when Pharaoh Djoser, 2667 to 2648, BCE, built the Step Pyramid at Saqqara, followed by Sneferu, 2613 to 2589 BCE, who built several pyramids such as the Bent Pyramid and the Red Pyramid. Then came the Pharaoh Khufu, 2589 to 2566 BCE, who built the famous Great Pyramid of Giza in a labor intensive 20 year process, one that the world still marvels at today. Khufu was then followed by Pharaohs Khafre and Mekaure who built these slightly smaller second and third pyramids of Giza respectively. While over in China in the year 2100 BCE, the first Chinese dynasty was upon us. Like the people of Mesopotamia, the Chinese were ever reliant on agriculture, producing rice, wheat, and barley among other crops. However, as legend has it, the Yellow River flooded. These massive floods would destroy all the crops leading to massive famine and suffering. However, not all was to be lost because Yu The Great was on his way. Yu was so distraught by this problem that he would spend his days traveling up and down the Yellow River. He found ways to divert the rivers by building levies and dikes so that he could regulate the waterways. Then after 13 years of hard work, the floods could no longer wreak havoc on the land. The people were overjoyed and Yu was hailed as a savior. That was the start of the first Chinese dynasty, the Xia Dynasty. Though the accuracy of this tale is questioned by historians, it does establish an important precedent. The idea is that power ought to follow one's merit. An individual who deserves absolute power shall have absolute power. This idea would shape the world for years to come and cause the people of ancient China to follow him to create the first ever Chinese dynasty. While back over in Mesopotamia around 1772, BCE, a Babylonian king named King Hammurabi created the basis of the legal system as we know it today, Hammurabi ordered the creation of a seven foot tall, two foot wide stone slab. Written on it was a system of 282 laws that each citizen of his kingdom was to follow. Such laws included various laws such as law one, if a man brings an accusation against another man, charging him with murder, but cannot prove it, the accuser shall be put to death. Law 196, if a man destroys the eye of another man, they shall destroy his eye. Law 197 says, if he breaks another man's bone, they shall break it. Law 199, if he destroys the eye of a man's slave or breaks the bone of a man's slave, he shall pay one half his price. However, what King Hammurabi did was create a society based on laws. He laid out strict laws, placing people into certain casts of life and value. Everyone was worth a different amount based on what class they were in society. There was no illusion of equality in ancient Babylon. Instead, it was pretty clear the value of a noble's bone was worth more than a plebeian's which in turn was worth more than a slave's. An idea we continue to see throughout history. While in modern day Turkey, a lesser known civilization came to power, the Hittites' Empire under the charismatic rule of the leader, Labarnas, 1680 to 1650 BCE, he was a skilled ruler with a single vision in mind. Uniting the Hittite city states under a single rule. Labarnas led his army from city to city, conquering neighboring city states and making alliances with their leaders. He was a shrewd diplomat and he used his diplomatic skills to win over the hearts and minds of the people. Eventually, Labarnas became the ruler of all the Hittite city states and established the empire. He was a just and fair ruler and was loved by his people. Under his rule, the Hittites prospered and their territory expanded, leaving them right next to their neighbors in Egypt. While in modern day Greece, a collection of city states emerged on the European continent, Mycenean Greece, 1600 BCE to 1100 BCE was dominated by an elite warrior society and consisted of a network of palace centered states that developed rigid, hierarchical political, social, and economic systems. At the head of this society was the king. However, unlike a unified civilization, each city was on its own. A city state is a city that with its surrounding territory forms an independent state. The development of city states such as Troy, Mycenae, and Pylos start to grow. The first remnants of the Greek written language known as Linear B, also started to emerge. The first record of any Indo-European Greek record we have today. While back in Egypt, they started to create a social pyramid of another type, the Egyptian social pyramid. Like the Great Pyramid of Giza, it is more prominent at the bottom and tinier at the top. At the bottom lays the peasants and the slaves, they were responsible for doing all the manual labor. They worked on the lands. They would spend the day in and day out farming, producing food for all of Egypt. Then when the season to farm was over for the year, they would work on the Pharaoh's massive building projects. Literally building the pyramids. Slightly above the slaves came the artisans. They were the stone masons, the plasters, and the sculptors who created the exuberant art the wealthy desired, and for Egypt is most known for today. Then came the merchants who spent their days in navigating the Nile, trading gold, papyrus and linen to anyone who could afford it. They were well respected and able to make a healthy profit by selling. Then came the scribes. These masters of the word would go to specialized scribe schools just to master the language of ancient Egyptian hieroglyphics. In practical use, these scribes took account of the stores of food, various tax documents, and even the daily lives of the Pharaoh. After the scribes came the soldiers, the soldiers were tasked with protecting the Egyptian empire. They dedicated their lives to defend or make preemptive strikes against their enemy. Generally, they were well fed. Then near the top came the bureaucrats. These high ranking government officials did essential tasks at the top of society, like the viziers who ran the logistical tasks necessary to run a civilization. The priests oversaw taking care of the temples to ensure the gods were well cared for. The nobles oversaw specific regions of the empire and kept order in said regions. At the top, the purpose of everyone below was the pharaoh, the king, and the mediator between the gods and the world of men. The Pharaohs will be known to be supreme and all must succumb to it. When the Pharaoh dies, he will be buried in a pyramid in which he will help eternally rule over the Egyptian empire. Egyptian society was created to serve the Pharaoh. Taxes were taken from the farmers for the Pharaoh, and artisans made unique crafts for it. The merchants ensured the Pharaoh was well supplied with the needed goods. The scribes would follow the Pharaoh and record his thoughts. The soldiers made sure his empire was protected. The bureaucrats did the jobs the Pharaoh couldn't do. While the Pharaoh sat at the top and communicated with the gods. Pharaoh Ramesses II, 1279 to 1213 BCE, accomplished many extraordinary things by living in this social system. He orchestrated the construction of the temple of Abu Simbel, the Ramesseum and the Temple of Karnak. He was also able to grow the Egyptian empire and re-conquer lands lost by other Pharaohs. Except for the land claimed by the Hittite empire. The Hittite king of the time, Mutwalli II, 1295 to 1272 BCE was notorious for ordering his troops to attack his Egyptian neighbors. Following the example of Labarnas, Mutwalli wanted to unify the world under Hittite rule. However, Ramesses had enough. Other Pharaohs in the past have tried to stop the Hittites, but he knew if his empire was to ever succeed, he needed to attack back. His target is the city of Kadesh. Ramesses rode in on his chariot with four divisions of 20,000 men ready to dominate and kill Mutwalli. However, the Hittites already knew of the incoming Egyptian invasion through espionage. They fortified their city with 40,000 of his own men, a war was about to commence. Ramesses decided to split up his divisions to force Mutwalli out, but yet Mutwalli never did, a gruesome mistake. Splitting up his forces left him exposed, unable to get an advantage, allowing Mutwalli and the people of Kadesh a chance for victory. Historians believe that all they did was come out from the fortification of Kadesh and trap Ramesses II's forces in his army by the river. But yet for some unknown reason, they never did. Leaving the battle of Kadesh to end in a draw. Aft --- Finally, after months of grueling fighting, the Athenian fleet was destroyed in a decisive battle. Thousands of Athenians were killed, and many more were captured and enslaved. A decade after that, Athens fell to the Spartans. The age of legendary Greece was now over. Both Athens and Sparta were significantly weaker, never to regain the same power they once had. Leaving the world ready for a philosopher king to conquer it all. Then in the East, the mandate of heaven was up. The Zhou Dynasty, after a long 800 year rule, it was deemed by the heavens that their empire was up, which led to a period known as the warring states, 474 to 221 BCE. This resulted in Han Feizi who created a new philosophy called legalism. Followers of legalism believe that people were inherently selfish and would only act in their own self-interest, and that the only way to keep them in line was through a system of rewards and punishments that was clear and consistently enforced. This resulted in Feizi claiming that the best way to achieve social order was by establishing a powerful ruler, responsible for enforcing the law and punishing wrongdoers. He also believed the ruler should have complete control over the military, the economy, and society. While in the heart of the Oaxaca region of Mexico, the Zapotec civilization started to flourish. The capital city of Monte Alban was being built on a mountaintop, overlooking the entire Oaxaca Valley. Perched on the mountaintop overlooking the valley of Oaxaca, the city was home to a ruling elite who oversaw a hierarchical social structure that included middle class artisans and lower class farmers. The people of the Zapotec civilization were known for their innovative agricultural practices, including the cultivation of maize and other crops, which sustained their communities in times of drought and other environmental pressures. They also developed an early writing system, which used a combination of symbols and glyphs to represent words and ideas. They developed an advanced calendar system based on 260 day and 365 day solar cycles. In Greece during the year 356 BCE in the City of Pella in the kingdom of Macedon, the greatest commander in history was born, Alexander the Great, grew up knowing he would be a leader and was the son of King Philip II and Queen Olympia. But the teacher was much more impressive. Since he was a kid, Alexander was tutored by Aristotle. Aristotle is the man who is known as the father of logic. He created the fields of biology and taxonomy by introducing a way to think called the scientific method, a method that is still taught in schools to this day. He also wrote extensively about philosophy, ethics, and art, changing the face of the world as we know it today. This is the man who was in charge of teaching Alexander the Great. Alexander was 20 when his father was assassinated, but his excellent education allowed him to take over the rest of the world. After his father died in 336 BCE, Alexander was hellbent on keeping his family's power. So when the Greek City of Thebes decided to revolt, Alexander and his army marched 240 miles in 14 days. When Thebes refused to surrender, he razed the entire city to the ground, and 6,000 were killed, and the rest were sold into slavery. The rest of the Greek city states recoiled in fear, allowing Alexander to do as he pleased, leaving for his new target to be Persia and the new Persian king, Darius III. In 333 BC, Alexander faced the Persian army at the Battle Of Issus. This significant engagement saw the Persian king, Darius III defeated and forced to flee. Alexander then captured several key cities, including the vital port of Tyre, which had resisted his initial siege. In 331 BC Alexander faced Darius III again at the Battle of Gaugamela, near the Tigris River in modern day Iraq. Despite being outnumbered, Alexander won a decisive victory using superior tactics and mobility. The Persian army was shattered, and Darius III fled once again. Alexander then proceeded to capture the Persian capital of Babylon and took control of much of Mesopotamia. He continued his campaign eastward, winning battles in what is now modern day Iran and Afghanistan. In 330 BC, he captured the Persian capital of Persepolis, a city of great wealth and cultural significance. But Alexander wasn't done. He wanted to expand eastward, eventually crossing the Hindu Kush mountains into India. However, his troops grew tired of the endless fighting and refused to go any further, and Alexander was forced to turn back. However, after Alexander failed in the Indian subcontinent, a powerhouse emerged in India called the Mauryan Empire. At its height, it spanned over much of India, Pakistan, Bangladesh, and Afghanistan. However, this conquering came at much of a cost for its leader, Ashoka the Great. In 261 BC, after the death of his parents, Ashoka decided that his empire needed to expand. In his sights, the kingdom of Kalinga. The war was bloody, the war was fierce. Over a hundred thousand people died. Ashoka couldn't sleep with himself. He didn't know how to deal with his actions that resulted in so much death, so he turned to the teaching of the Buddha. Under Ashoka's rule, the Mauryan Empire became known for supporting Buddhist teachings and promoting nonviolence. Ashoka issued a series of edicts inscribed on rocks and pillars throughout the empire that promoted principles such as kindness, respect for all religions and the abolition of slavery. Certain traits were not shared in the West by Alexander. In the West, it was deemed honorable to die in combat, and a hero's death would be remembered forever. A farmer will die in anonymity. Alexander died a few years later in Babylon at the age of 32. Throughout his expedition, Alexander was spreading Greek ideas founded by his once wise teacher, bringing the rise of Greek ideals across the land, starting the seeds of the Western cultures we see today. Once Alexander died, his empire just could not sustain itself. His generals feuded as to who should be the leader of this great empire. Everyone wanted power, yet in fighting left to waste in oblivion. Eventually, in 323 BC after senseless wars, the Greek generals divided the world into three major empires. The Ptolemies in Egypt, the Seleucids in the east and the Antigonids in Greece. Ptolemy, one of Alexander's generals led Egypt into a period of prosperity. Inspiration by his former leader, Ptolemy built the library of Alexandria, a hub for an intellectual scholarship. Intellectuals from all over will come to the library to exchange ideas and thoughts throughout the world, leaving us to have great philosophers like Plato and Aristotle to be the backbone of our culture. While the general Seleucid was given the keys to the city of Babylon, Babylon at this time was a cultural hub, melting Greek, Persian, Indian and central Asian cultures. Seleucid though preferred Greek ideas and Greek language. The Seleucid Empire was at its height, during the reign of King Antiochus III 223 BC to 187 BC. Under King Antiochus III, the Seleucids encompassed a vast territory from modern day Turkey to modern day Pakistan, one of the largest empires on record until the rise of the Romans. While the Antigonids did not have nearly as much success. By the time Antigonus I took power, the Greeks were just a shell of what they once were. The age of the Greeks was behind us, the Ptolemies, the Seleucids and the Antigonids went astray from the Roman Empire. However, for Rome to rise, it had to face a powerful foe, Carthage. Both Rome and Carthage had a desire for the same city state, Messina on the island of Sicily. This would give either civilization a foothold to grab power in the Mediterranean. The first Punic war was upon us, and after 20 years of fighting in the year 241, BCE, and the defeat of Carthage, the Treaty of Lutatius was signed. The peace though was shortlived. In 218, BCE, the second Punic Wars began when the Carthagian General Hannibal invaded Italy with his army, including elephants to conquer Rome. Hannibal won several early battles, including the Battle of Cannae in 216, BCE. Still, he was ultimately defeated by the Roman general Scipio Africanus, at the Battle of Zama in 202 BCE. The war resulted in the complete defeat of Carthage, which was forced to cede its territories to Rome and the end of the Carthaginian Empire. There was no doubt in the world anymore that it was time for the Romans to take charge in the West. While in the East, after the end of the warring states period. Qin Shi Huang and the Qin Dynasty were an absolute power. 221 BCE to 206 BCE, Qin was determined to turn diverse China into a unified Chinese empire. He divided the lands into 36 command areas supervised by a governor, military commander, and imperial inspector. It was expected that you followed the will of Qin or else you would face harsh penalties, the basic ideas of legalism in action, strong government, harsh laws, and inheriting knowing that humans were necessarily selfish. However, their mandate from heaven ran quite quickly. After Qin Shi Huang's death, China was in turmoil with another dynasty on foot. Liu Bang, leader from 206 to 195 BCE, after leading a revolt against the Qin was declared emperor of the New Han dynasty. Instead of following the strict legalistic mindset of the Qin, Liu decided to set his empire as a Confucianist paradise. The ideals of moderation, virtue and piety as set through Confucianism were marched throughout the empire, weaving the cocoon of a powerful dynasty. During the Han Dynasty, the production of silk was ever increasing, and the idea of profits was in the minds of all. So in 138, BCE, Emperor Han Wu sent an imperial convoy to make contact with cultures of Central Asia and the Mediterranean. Then after the routes were established, Chinese merchants and traders would bring their silk across the Silk Road to the Middle East and eventually Europe, where it would be sold at high profits. Though in the beginning, the route was relatively short because in 97 BC Ambassador Gan Ying was sent to Rome with gifts of silk for their empire. However, Gan only got as far as Mesopotamia because he was told by the Parthians, the dominant empire in Iran at the time that the journey would take years. Little did Gan know that he was misinformed, that the journey would've been relatively shorter, but the Parthians wanted to keep their spot as the middlemen. They did not want China and Rome to have contact with one another, creating a system of three empires smooshed right up against each other, Rome in the west, Parthians in the center, and China in the east. Then in 86, BCE, Greece already being weakened by the conquest of Alexander The Great was now the target of the Roman Empire. General Lucius Cornelius Sulla led an army of legions to the forefront of Athens. He besieged Athens for several months, brutally torturing the citizens within. Eventually when Athens fell, he ordered his soldiers to loot and pillage the city, destroying many important cultural treasures. This takeover cemented Rome as a superpower. Athens no longer had the power, but rather it was in Rome. While in 63, BCE, General Pompey was tasked with capturing Jerusalem and the region of Galilee. The Romans quickly captured the cities, forcing Galilee to be placed under Roman rule, including a small village called Nazareth. The Romans desire to expand didn't end in Galilee though. In 58, BCE, Julius Caesar was appointed governor of the Roman provide of Cisalpine Gaul, Northern Italy, with the express assignment of conquering the rest of the Gauls. At the time, the Gauls were a group of Celtic peoples who lived in that area that is now France, Belgium, and parts of Switzerland, Germany, and Italy. However, it was Caesar's job to take over these Celtic tribes, while the Gauls who were insistent on their independence all had to work together under the leadership of Vercingetorix, in a last ditch attempt to stop the Romans. As Caesar brought his troops to Alesia in 52 BC, war was upon us. Alesia was surrounded by a double wall and a ditch with additional fortifications on the town's heels, Vercingetorix had gathered a large force of Gallic warriors inside the town. In contrast, Caesar had assembled a sizable Roman army outside the walls. Caesar realized that a direct assault on the town would be complex, so he surrounded th --- Nicene Creed which declared that Jesus Christ was begotten, not made, and of one substance with the Father. Constantine was finally baptized as a Christian on his death bed, in 337 AD. Come 370 AD, a new player was on the scenes. The Huns were a barbaric nomadic civilization who were masters of warfare. According to legends, they were taught horsemanship as early as the age of three. Also, they would attack their own with a sword to teach them how to endure pain. These people weren't to be messed lightly with. When they crossed the Volga River in 370 on their horses and lusted for blood, the Alans civilization didn't stand much chance. Two years later, they attacked the Ostrogoths, an eastern tribe of Germanic Goths, who harassed the Roman empire by frequently attacking their territories. By 376, the Huns had attacked the Visigoths, the Western tribe of Goths and forced them to seek sanctuary within the Roman Empire. As the Huns dominated Goth and Visigoth lands, they earned a new reputation as the new barbarians in town and seemed unstoppable. By 395 AD they began invading Roman domains, and some Roman Christians believed they were devils who arrived straight from hell. The reason they started invading Rome was because of the death of Theodosius the Great, his shining achievement as emperor was keeping the Goths and the Huns at bay, but on death, he decided to follow the ideas of Diocletian and split the empire up again. Splitting up control between his two sons, Arcadius in the east and Honorius in the west, making Theodosius the last leader of a united Rome. With Honorius in charge, the incapable general made Western Rome an easy target to be bullied. The Visigoths looking for a new place to live had their eyes set on Rome. So throughout the early 410s, the Visigoths ransacked various Roman cities. Then on August 24th, 410, the Visigoth sacked Rome, taking control of this historic city. It was the first time in nearly 800 years that a foreign army occupied the city of Rome. However, the Visigoths couldn't maintain control of Rome. Instead, they continued to ransack Roman territories until they established their kingdom in 418, in modern day Spain. While the prospects of existence weren't so much better in Eastern Rome, the notorious Attila the Hun was gaining power and his brutal tactics called him the Scourge of God. After a failed peace attempt in 441, Attila and his army stormed through the Balkans and the Danubian frontier. Another peace treaty was forged in 442, but Attila attacked again in 443, killing, ransacking and pillaging his way to the well fortified city of Constantinople. However, due to Constantinople's high walls, Attila couldn't conquer it. Instead, Attila was able to muster another peace agreement. He would leave Constantinople alone in exchange for an annual tribute of 2,100 pounds of gold, a staggering sum. Then in 451, the Huns invaded the Gauls, allowing the once enemies of the Visigoths and the Romans to wise up and work together to fight the Huns. According to legend, the night before the imminent battle, Attila consulted sacrificed bones and saw that thousands of his army would fall in the fight. The next day, his premonition came true. In the battle of the Catalaunian planes, after hours of ferocious fighting, tens of thousands of soldiers lay dead, giving Attila his first and only military defeat in history. However, even after the loss, Attila and his army marched on and returned to Italy, continuously ravaging the cities. In 452 with Rome in sight, he met Pope Leo I who acted as an emissary between Attila and Rome. There's no record of what they discussed. Still, according to legend, the apparitions of St. Paul and St. Peter appear to Attila. They threatened to kill him if he didn't negotiate with Pope Leo I. Attila decided to pull out of Italy and return to the great Hungarian plane, whether because of his fear of the Pope and his saintly allies or because of his troops were stretched too thin and weakened by malaria. However, the struggle for Western Rome wasn't over. In 476 AD, the young emperor Romulus Augustus had trouble keeping power for himself, as many Romans felt he was illegitimate. So the Eastern Roman empire sent the Germanic general Odoacer and his mercenaries to suppress a revolt by the Roman army in the region. However, instead of supporting the Eastern Roman empire, Odoacer saw an opportunity to seize power for himself. He turned against the Roman government and deposed the last Western Roman emperor, Romulus Augustus, effectively marking the end of the Western Roman empire. As the steps of his victory, Odoacer was declared the king of Italy. However, Odoacer's victory was short-lived because in 493, Theodoric the Great of the Ostrogoths with the support of Eastern Roman Emperor Zeno came in and created the Ostrogothic Kingdom of Italy, sending Odoacer to meet his fate. While Europe was in the crux of a dark age, India under the Gupta Empire was in a mathematical golden age. Great mathematicians like Brahmagupta started using zero as a placeholder and as various solutions for mathematical equations. The astronomer Aryabhata was able to calculate the circumference of the Earth. He proved the world was round long before it was globally accepted. Aryabhata was also able to develop methods for calculating pi and square roots. However, his crowning achievement was creating the concept of an asymptote, which is a line that approaches the curve but never touches it. The Franks under Clovis I had been an engaged with the Alamanni, another Germanic tribe and tensions between the two groups were running high. In 496 AD in the battle of Tolbiac, Clovis I led his forces into battle against the Alamanni, with both sides eager to gain the upper hand in the ongoing struggle for power and territory. As the Alamanni began to push the Franks to defeat, in a moment of desperation, Clovis called out to the Christian God for assistance, promising to convert to Christianity, if he emerged victorious. According to legend, a sudden thunderstorm appeared and the Franks could regroup and launch a successful counter attack against the Alamanni. The battle ended in a decisive victory for the Franks and Clovis kept his promise and converted to Christianity, officially cementing Christianity to the forefront and birthing the Frankish kingdom. While the western Roman empire might have fallen. In the East, the Roman Empire was changing. Many historians argue that the Eastern Roman empire based out of Constantinople should be considered a part of Rome. However, it is undeniable that under Justinian I would lead the Eastern half into its next chapter in life. The Byzantine Empire, whether it's a continuation of the Roman Empire before, is a debate for another (indistinct). Under the leadership of Justinian I, like many Roman emperors before him, he would expand the Byzantine Empire to reach places such as Italy, North Africa, and even Spain. He also commissioned a team of legal scholars to codify all the laws of the Roman Empire, known as the Corpus Juris Civilis which became the basis of the European laws we know today. He also commissioned the world-renowned Hagia Sophia in Constantinople, where this beautiful cathedral, adorned with intricate mosaics and marble decorations became the head of the Eastern Orthodox Church. However, Jesus wasn't the only prophet at the time. In the small town of Mecca, a nomadic tribe called the Quraysh gave birth to a man who would change the religious world, yet again, Muhammad. Muhammad was orphaned at an early age and was raised by his grandfather and later his uncle. As he grew up, he worked as a merchant, which earned him the nickname al-Amin, meaning the trustworthy. On one of his pilgrimages in 610, Muhammad meditated in a cave on Mount Jabal al-Nour, the angel Gabriel appeared and relayed the word of God. Recite in the name of your Lord who creates, creates a man from a clot. Recite for your Lord is most generous became the opening verses of Surah chapter 96 of the Quran. At first, Muhammad was reluctant, not knowing how to disclose this information. However, soon enough, Muhammad began to gather a small following, which was mocked by the pagans of Mecca. However, when Muhammad denounced idol worship, the leader of Mecca knew that he was through. So through the resistance from Mecca, Muhammad and his followers were eventually forced to immigrate to Medina, a city 260 miles away. There Muhammad was instrumental in ending various civil wars creating a prosperous Muslim community. Nevertheless, this prosperity would be challenged by the members of Muhammad's old tribe, the Quraysh and their allies who marched up to Medina with a large army to attack the Muslims. Muhammad devised a plan that they could defend the city if they dug a trench around its perimeter, making it near impossible for enemy forces to penetrate. For several weeks, the Quraysh tried to break through the trench, trying and trying yet again. Eventually, strong wind and heavy rain caused the Quraysh forces to abandon the siege, marking the Muslims as victorious. In 630, the Muslim army marched into Mecca, taking the city with minimum casualties. Muhammad gave amnesty to the enemy leaders who once supposed him, converting most of the Meccan population to Islam. At the time of Muhammad's death, the Muslims had successfully united the Arabian Peninsula under the banner of Islam. After Muhammad's death, a series of Caliphs or leaders took over the leadership of the Muslim community, beginning with Abu Bakr, a close companion of the prophet. Under the leadership of the Caliphs, the Muslim community continued to expand its territory, conquering new lands, and spreading the message of Islam. At first, Aku Bakr had his eyes set on the Byzantine Empire's provinces of Syria, taking over the crucial cities of Damascus and Jerusalem. Then in 636, the Arab forces invaded the Sasanian Empire, taking over their capital city in 637, marking the end of the Sasanian empire. Onward to Egypt, they went, where after years of fighting, they successfully defeated the Byzantine to take over the city of Alexandria in 642 AD, economically crippling the Byzantines. By 716, the Arab forces had conquered much of North Africa, Carthage, and Spain, so that by 716, the Arabs had an extensive empire from Lisbon to China. After consolidating their hold on the Iberian Peninsula, the Arabs launched raids into neighboring Francia, modern day France. In 732 AD they launched a significant invasion to expand their territory northward. The Arabs forces led by Emir Abdul Rahman Al Ghafiqi quickly conquered several cities in the region, including Bordeaux and Tours. However, Charles Martel, the military leader of the Franks, assembled a large army to meet the Arabs in battle, the battle of Christianity versus Islam. Both empires wanted to keep their own faith. The Arabs wanted to impose their religion onto the Franks. The two forces clashed near Tours on October 10th, 732 AD. The battle was fierce and lasted several days with both sides suffering heavy casualties. In the end, though, Charles Martel and the Franks emerged victorious and the Arab forces were forced to retreat back to Spain, ending the massive expansion of the Arabic empire. While in the West, the definition of God was war. In China, during the rule of the Tang, religions like Buddhism, Taoism, and Confucianism, all coexisted peacefully, a citizen was able to believe what they wanted to believe, leaving for many temples and pagodas to be built across the empire. Also, during the Tang, the height of Chinese poetry was upon us. Poets like Li Po and Du Fu created poems that later became the foundations of Chinese literature. Li Po wrote a poignant poem called Zazen on Ching-t'ing Mountain, translated by Sam Hamel, "the birds have vanished down the sky. Now the last cloud drains away. We sit together the mountain and me until only the mountain remains." Charlemagne, also known as Charles the Great became the king of the Franks in 768, Charlemagne was a skilled military leader who expanded the Frankish empire, through successful campaigns. He conquered much of Western Europe, including modern day France, Germany, Italy, and Spain. Charlemagne was also a devout Christian and worked to spread Christianity throughout his empire. In 785, Harun was declared Caliph, instead of fo --- ntially says the market would balance itself out over time. In Austria, Mozart was performing his Magnum opus, the Haffner Serenade. Mozart's Haffner Serenade is a charming and elegant work featuring courtly dance music and light lyrical melodies. Its graceful melodies, subtle harmonies, and elegant instrumental writing characterize it. As the war continued, King George III sent his armies of the masses over to America. Though the colonists had little military training, their knowledge of the terrain and guerrilla tactics made them nearly invisible. At the same time, the red army coats were easy to see for the Americans. In the summer of 1781, George Washington and French General Rochambeau marched their forces south to Virginia, where they laid siege to Cornwallis and his army at Yorktown. The British were trapped and could not escape by land or sea. The siege dragged on for weeks. The American and French forces bombarded the British with artillery. They dug trenches to inch their way closer to the British defensive. The French Navy defeated the British Navy in a crucial naval battle off the coast of Virginia, cutting off Cornwallis's only escape route by sea. On October 14th, 1781, the American and French forces launched a massive assault on the British defenses. The British fought valiantly but were vastly outnumbered and outgunned, and they soon began to falter. On October 19th, Cornwallis surrendered his army to Washington effectively ending the war. The victory at Yorktown was a decisive moment in the war, and it marked the end of British rule in America, and the beginning of a new experiment. With America finally being free from the totally tyrannical grips of Britain, they had one issue, how were they going to lead? Were they going to make General George Washington their monarch? Therefore, democracy was chosen. However, Plato made a good point many years ago that the common man was incapable and not wise enough to pick a better leader, to lead them to success. So the American founded constitutional convention came up with this idea of the electoral college, where the common man would vote for a particular person who would then have a say in who could be president. So instead of the president being directly voted on by the people, they would vote on elites who would then vote for the president directly. The French then noticed how well the American Revolution went. At the time the French were ruled by King Louis the 16th, and his wife, Queen Marie Antoinette. As Queen Marie Antoinette told the peasants, let them eat cake. The people of France got together. They decided they wanted more say in how the country was run, and they formed a group called the National Assembly and started making new laws to give them more rights. One of the most famous events of the French Revolution was the storming of the Bastille. This was a prison that represented the king's power, and the people wanted to show that they were not afraid of him. They broke into the prison and freed the prisoners, which started a revolution throughout France. Many influential people lost their heads during the revolution, including King Louis XVI and his wife Queen Marie Antoinette. The people were tired of being ruled by a king and queen who didn't care about them, and they wanted to create a new system where everyone would have a say, and the people of France voted in Maximilian Robespierre. In 1789 Robespierre was elected as a delegate to the Estates General, which was convened to address France's financial crisis. He quickly emerged as a leading voice in the National Assembly, advocating for the ordinary people's rights and opposing the aristocracy's power. As the revolution continued though, Robespierre became increasingly radical in his views, advocating for the execution of King Louis XVI and the establishment of a republic. He was elected to the powerful Committee of Public Safety in 1793, tasked with protecting the revolution and rooting out enemies of the state. Under Robespierre's leadership, the committee launched a period of intense repression known as the reign of terror. Thousands of people were arrested, tried and executed for crimes against the revolution. Robespierre became known as a ruthless, and uncompromising figure. However, Robespierre's power began to wane as the people grew tired of the violence and the instability of the revolution. In 1794, he was arrested and imprisoned along with his closest allies. On July 28th, 1794, Robespierre was taken to the guillotine and executed. The execution marked the end of the reign of terror and democracy for now in France. Instead, they moved to a directory. A directory is a government led by a five member executive council, known as the directory, which was chosen by the Council of Elders. This legislative body was also part of the new government. The directory was meant to serve as a moderating force, balancing the interests of the various factions that had emerged during the revolution. However, the directory concept wasn't successful as well, so general Napoleon Bonaparte decided to overthrow the government and begin his conquests to take over the world. So off Napoleon went to conquer much of Europe. In 1805, Napoleon defeated a combined Austro Russian army at the Battle of Austerlitz solidifying his position as one of Europe's most powerful leaders. He then conquered much of the continent, including Spain, Portugal, and the Netherlands. In 1812, Napoleon invaded Russia with a massive army. Still, the campaign proved disastrous and his forces were decimated by the harsh Russian winter. The defeat marked the beginning of Napoleon's downfall. In 1814, the European powers allied against Napoleon and invaded France, forcing him to abdicate his throne and go into exile on the Island of Elba. However, he returned to France in 1815 in what became known as the hundred days and briefly regained power before being defeated by the British and Prussian armies, at the Battle of Waterlo. While back in the Americas, Simon Bolivar was on his military campaigns to free Latin American countries, from the grasp of the Spanish colonial rule. Bolivar began his military campaigns in Venezuela in 1810, where he led a successful uprising against the Spanish colonial authorities. He then moved on to Columbia where he won a series of important victories against the Spanish, including the Battle of Boyaca in 1819, which secured the independence of Columbia. Bolivar then turned his attention to Ecuador and Peru, where he won a series of decisive battles that helped secure both country's independence. He captured the city of Lima in 1824, effectively ending Spanish control of Peru. Bolivar's final military campaign was in Bolivia where he led the fight for independence against the Spanish in 1825, Bolivia was named in honor of Bolivar who played a critical role in its liberation. In 1848, 2 men had an idea that would spark debate worldwide. Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels wrote the book called "The Communist Manifesto," which is a book about the idea of communism, where instead of a capitalistic system where the nobles or bourgeois own everything, and the workers and proletariats work for slave wages, instead, what if the proletariats own the means of production and all work together? As Marx and Engles would write, let the ruling classes tremble at a communistic revolution, "the proletarians would have nothing to lose but their chains and they have, and they'd to win." They would also write "the need for a constantly expanding market for its products chases the bourgeoisie over the whole surface of the globe. It must nestle everywhere, settle everywhere, establish connections everywhere." Right after the writing of "The Communist Manifesto" began a period in Europe known as the Scramble for Africa. It all began in the 1870s when European countries began to explore the interior of Africa, looking for new territories to claim and resources to exploit. At first, the European powers were cautious, sending explorers and missionaries into Africa to establish trade networks and alliances with local leaders. However, as competition increased, the European powers became more aggressive in their tactics. They used military force to establish colonies and protectorates, and they engaged in diplomatic maneuvering and propaganda campaigns to gain the support of local populations. One of the most ruthless tactics the European powers used was dividing Africa into artificial borders and creating new ethnic and linguistic divisions. This created tensions and conflicts between different African groups, which the Europeans used to their advantage, creating a European stronghold over the continent of Africa to increase their profits. The scramble for Africa came to an end as a result of several factors, including changing international politics, economic realities, and rising African nationalism. One of the key factors that contributed to the end of the scramble for Africa was the changing balance of power in Europe. By the early 20th century, European powers were increasingly focused on competition with each other, particularly in Europe itself, and were less interested in acquiring new colonies in Africa. This was due in part to the growing tensions between European powers that would eventually lead to the outbreak of World War I in 1914. Because on June 28th, 1914, a shot was heard around the world with the assassination of Arch Duke Franz Ferdinand. Franz Ferdinand was the heir to the throne of Austria-Hungary, and his assassination by a Serbian nationalist named Gavrilo Princip sparked a diplomatic crisis that quickly escalated into a global conflict. In the aftermath of the assassination, Austria-Hungary declared war on Serbia, triggering a complex web of alliances and treaties that drew other countries into the conflict. Germany, an ally of Austria-Hungary declared war on Russia and France, while Great Britain, which had a treaty with Belgium declared war on Germany. Within weeks, most of Europe was embroiled in a brutal and devastating conflict. In November, 1918, after four years of brutal fighting, the allied powers and the central powers agreed to an armistice, effectively bringing an end to the war and the demise of the Ottoman Empire. On November 11th, the armistice went into effect and the guns fell silent across Europe. World War II, the peace was short lived because a man named Adolf Hitler invaded Poland. Like Alexander the Great, Julius Caesar, Trajan, Attila the Hun, Genghis Khan, Napoleon Bonaparte, and Suleiman the Great. Adolf Hitler wanted to establish an empire for his nation and his people. Adolf had dreams of building an empire larger than anything that was ever created. He wanted to make the Roman Empire look like nothing. However, for the sake of the world, and especially those Hitler viewed as undesirable vermin, in April, 1945, Soviet forces began a massive assault on Berlin. After weeks of intense fighting, the city fell on May 2nd, and German forces surrendered. Meanwhile, allied forces were closing in from the West, and on May 7th, Germany signed an unconditional surrender, officially ending the war in Europe. A few months later, after the bombings of Nagasaki and Hiroshima, Japan surrendered as well. Leaving the war to be over. From World War II on, the world has faced a technological revolution with Alan Turing's invention of the computer during the war, the world became global. For 50 years, America and the Soviet Union were at war despite the fact that they were on two totally different continents. In 1969, Neil Armstrong landed on the moon saying. - [Neil] It's one small step for a man, one giant leap for mankind. - [Narrator] As the years on the world has become increasingly smaller, computers have become more affordable. Cell phones change the way we communicated with one another. Let's go back to the story of a man named Gilgamesh on his quest for immortality. At the end of the poem, Gilgamesh realizes "life, which you look for, you will never find. For when gods created man, they let death be his share and life withheld in their own hands." The history of human civilizations is an incomplete book, constantly being updated. Some things will never change. However, humans will always die. Empires will always rise and fall. The masses will always clamor towards safety. (dramatic music)